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/*

 * ====================================================

 * Copyright (C) 1993 by Sun Microsystems, Inc. All rights reserved.

 *

 * Developed at SunPro, a Sun Microsystems, Inc. business.

 * Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this

 * software is freely granted, provided that this notice

 * is preserved.

 * ====================================================

 */

 * Return correctly rounded sqrt.

 *           ------------------------------------------

 *	     |  Use the hardware sqrt if you have one |

 *           ------------------------------------------

 * Method:

 *   Bit by bit method using integer arithmetic. (Slow, but portable)

 *   1. Normalization

 *	Scale x to y in [1,4) with even powers of 2:

 *	find an integer k such that  1 <= (y=x*2^(2k)) < 4, then

 *		sqrt(x) = 2^k * sqrt(y)

 *   2. Bit by bit computation

 *	Let q  = sqrt(y) truncated to i bit after binary point (q = 1),

 *	     i							 0

 *                                     i+1         2

 *	    s  = 2*q , and	y  =  2   * ( y - q  ).		(1)

 *	     i      i            i                 i

 *

 *	To compute q    from q , one checks whether

 *		    i+1       i

 *

 *			      -(i+1) 2

 *			(q + 2      ) <= y.			(2)

 *     			  i

 *							      -(i+1)

 *	If (2) is false, then q   = q ; otherwise q   = q  + 2      .

 *		 	       i+1   i             i+1   i

 *

 *	With some algebric manipulation, it is not difficult to see

 *	that (2) is equivalent to

 *                             -(i+1)

 *			s  +  2       <= y			(3)

 *			 i                i

 *

 *	The advantage of (3) is that s  and y  can be computed by

 *				      i      i

 *	the following recurrence formula:

 *	    if (3) is false

 *

 *	    s     =  s  ,	y    = y   ;			(4)

 *	     i+1      i		 i+1    i

 *

 *	    otherwise,

 *                         -i                     -(i+1)

 *	    s	  =  s  + 2  ,  y    = y  -  s  - 2  		(5)

 *           i+1      i          i+1    i     i

 *

 *	One may easily use induction to prove (4) and (5).

 *	Note. Since the left hand side of (3) contain only i+2 bits,

 *	      it does not necessary to do a full (53-bit) comparison

 *	      in (3).

 *   3. Final rounding

 *	After generating the 53 bits result, we compute one more bit.

 *	Together with the remainder, we can decide whether the

 *	result is exact, bigger than 1/2ulp, or less than 1/2ulp

 *	(it will never equal to 1/2ulp).

 *	The rounding mode can be detected by checking whether

 *	huge + tiny is equal to huge, and whether huge - tiny is

 *	equal to huge for some floating point number "huge" and "tiny".

 *

 * Special cases:

 *	sqrt(+-0) = +-0 	... exact

 *	sqrt(inf) = inf

 *	sqrt(-ve) = NaN		... with invalid signal

 *	sqrt(NaN) = NaN		... with invalid signal for signaling NaN

 *

 * Other methods : see the appended file at the end of the program below.

 *---------------

 */

static	const double	one	= 1.0, tiny=1.0e-300;

#else

static	double	one	= 1.0, tiny=1.0e-300;

#endif

	double __ieee754_sqrt(double x)

#else

	double __ieee754_sqrt(x)

	double x;

#endif

{

	double z;

	__int32_t sign = (int)0x80000000;

	__uint32_t r,t1,s1,ix1,q1;

	__int32_t ix0,s0,q,m,t,i;

	if((ix0&0x7ff00000)==0x7ff00000) {

	    return x*x+x;		/* sqrt(NaN)=NaN, sqrt(+inf)=+inf

					   sqrt(-inf)=sNaN */

	}

    /* take care of zero */

	if(ix0<=0) {

	    if(((ix0&(~sign))|ix1)==0) return x;/* sqrt(+-0) = +-0 */

	    else if(ix0<0)

		return (x-x)/(x-x);		/* sqrt(-ve) = sNaN */

	}

    /* normalize x */

	m = (ix0>>20);

	if(m==0) {				/* subnormal x */

	    while(ix0==0) {

		m -= 21;

		ix0 |= (ix1>>11); ix1 <<= 21;

	    }

	    for(i=0;(ix0&0x00100000)==0;i++) ix0<<=1;

	    m -= i-1;

	    ix0 |= (ix1>>(32-i));

	    ix1 <<= i;

	}

	m -= 1023;	/* unbias exponent */

	ix0 = (ix0&0x000fffff)|0x00100000;

	if(m&1){	/* odd m, double x to make it even */

	    ix0 += ix0 + ((ix1&sign)>>31);

	    ix1 += ix1;

	}

	m >>= 1;	/* m = [m/2] */

	ix0 += ix0 + ((ix1&sign)>>31);

	ix1 += ix1;

	q = q1 = s0 = s1 = 0;	/* [q,q1] = sqrt(x) */

	r = 0x00200000;		/* r = moving bit from right to left */

	    t = s0+r;

	    if(t<=ix0) {

		s0   = t+r;

		ix0 -= t;

		q   += r;

	    }

	    ix0 += ix0 + ((ix1&sign)>>31);

	    ix1 += ix1;

	    r>>=1;

	}

	while(r!=0) {

	    t1 = s1+r;

	    t  = s0;

	    if((t

		s1  = t1+r;

		if(((t1&sign)==sign)&&(s1&sign)==0) s0 += 1;

		ix0 -= t;

		if (ix1 < t1) ix0 -= 1;

		ix1 -= t1;

		q1  += r;

	    }

	    ix0 += ix0 + ((ix1&sign)>>31);

	    ix1 += ix1;

	    r>>=1;

	}

	if((ix0|ix1)!=0) {

	    z = one-tiny; /* trigger inexact flag */

	    if (z>=one) {

	        z = one+tiny;

	        if (q1==(__uint32_t)0xffffffff) { q1=0; q += 1;}

		else if (z>one) {

		    if (q1==(__uint32_t)0xfffffffe) q+=1;

		    q1+=2;

		} else

	            q1 += (q1&1);

	    }

	}

	ix0 = (q>>1)+0x3fe00000;

	ix1 =  q1>>1;

	if ((q&1)==1) ix1 |= sign;

	ix0 += (m <<20);

	INSERT_WORDS(z,ix0,ix1);

	return z;

}

Other methods  (use floating-point arithmetic)

-------------

(This is a copy of a drafted paper by Prof W. Kahan

and K.C. Ng, written in May, 1986)

	(IEEE double precision arithmetic) in software.

	Both supply sqrt(x) correctly rounded. The first algorithm (in

	Section A) uses newton iterations and involves four divisions.

	The second one uses reciproot iterations to avoid division, but

	requires more multiplications. Both algorithms need the ability

	to chop results of arithmetic operations instead of round them,

	and the INEXACT flag to indicate when an arithmetic operation

	is executed exactly with no roundoff error, all part of the

	standard (IEEE 754-1985). The ability to perform shift, add,

	subtract and logical AND operations upon 32-bit words is needed

	too, though not part of the standard.

	a floating point number x (in IEEE double format) respectively

	   ------------------------------------------------------

	x: |s|	  e     |	      f				|

	   ------------------------------------------------------

	      msb    lsb  msb				      lsb ...order

	x0:  |s|   e    |    f1     |	 x1: |          f2           |

	     ------------------------  	     ------------------------

	as integers), we obtain an 8-bit approximation of sqrt(x) as

	follows.

		y0 := k - T1[31&(k>>15)].	... y ~ sqrt(x) to 8 bits

	Here k is a 32-bit integer and T1[] is an integer array containing

	correction terms. Now magically the floating value of y (y's

	leading 32-bit word is y0, the value of its trailing word is 0)

	approximates sqrt(x) to almost 8-bit.

	static int T1[32]= {

	0,	1024,	3062,	5746,	9193,	13348,	18162,	23592,

	29598,	36145,	43202,	50740,	58733,	67158,	75992,	85215,

	83599,	71378,	60428,	50647,	41945,	34246,	27478,	21581,

	16499,	12183,	8588,	5674,	3403,	1742,	661,	130,};

	sqrt(x) to within 1 ulp (Unit in the Last Place):

		y := (y+x/y)/2		... almost 35 sig. bits

		y := y-(y-x/y)/2	... within 1 ulp

	    Another way to improve y to within 1 ulp is:

		y := y - 0x00100006	... almost 18 sig. bits to sqrt(x)

			    (x-y )*y

		y := y + 2* ----------	...within 1 ulp

			       2

			     3y  + x

	it requires more multiplications and additions. Also x must be

	scaled in advance to avoid spurious overflow in evaluating the

	expression 3y*y+x. Hence it is not recommended uless division

	is slow. If division is very slow, then one should use the

	reciproot algorithm given in section B.

	correctly rounded according to the prevailing rounding mode

	as follows. Let r and i be copies of the rounding mode and

	inexact flag before entering the square root program. Also we

	use the expression y+-ulp for the next representable floating

	numbers (up and down) of y. Note that y+-ulp = either fixed

	point y+-1, or multiply y by nextafter(1,+-inf) in chopped

	mode.

		R := RZ;	... set rounding mode to round-toward-zero

		z := x/y;	... chopped quotient, possibly inexact

		If(not I) then {	... if the quotient is exact

		    if(z=y) {

		        I := i;	 ... restore inexact flag

		        R := r;  ... restore rounded mode

		        return sqrt(x):=y.

		    } else {

			z := z - ulp;	... special rounding

		    }

		}

		i := TRUE;		... sqrt(x) is inexact

		If (r=RN) then z=z+ulp	... rounded-to-nearest

		If (r=RP) then {	... round-toward-+inf

		    y = y+ulp; z=z+ulp;

		}

		y := y+z;		... chopped sum

		y0:=y0-0x00100000;	... y := y/2 is correctly rounded.

	        I := i;	 		... restore inexact flag

	        R := r;  		... restore rounded mode

	        return sqrt(x):=y.

	Square root of a negative number is NaN with invalid signal.

	a floating point number x (in IEEE double format) respectively

	(see section A). By performing shifs and subtracts on x0 and y0,

	we obtain a 7.8-bit approximation of 1/sqrt(x) as follows.

	    y0:= k - T2[63&(k>>14)].	... y ~ 1/sqrt(x) to 7.8 bits

	containing correction terms. Now magically the floating

	value of y (y's leading 32-bit word is y0, the value of

	its trailing word y1 is set to zero) approximates 1/sqrt(x)

	to almost 7.8-bit.

	static int T2[64]= {

	0x1500,	0x2ef8,	0x4d67,	0x6b02,	0x87be,	0xa395,	0xbe7a,	0xd866,

	0xf14a,	0x1091b,0x11fcd,0x13552,0x14999,0x15c98,0x16e34,0x17e5f,

	0x18d03,0x19a01,0x1a545,0x1ae8a,0x1b5c4,0x1bb01,0x1bfde,0x1c28d,

	0x1c2de,0x1c0db,0x1ba73,0x1b11c,0x1a4b5,0x1953d,0x18266,0x16be0,

	0x1683e,0x179d8,0x18a4d,0x19992,0x1a789,0x1b445,0x1bf61,0x1c989,

	0x1d16d,0x1d77b,0x1dddf,0x1e2ad,0x1e5bf,0x1e6e8,0x1e654,0x1e3cd,

	0x1df2a,0x1d635,0x1cb16,0x1be2c,0x1ae4e,0x19bde,0x1868e,0x16e2e,

	0x1527f,0x1334a,0x11051,0xe951,	0xbe01,	0x8e0d,	0x5924,	0x1edd,};

	result by x to get an approximation z that matches sqrt(x)

	to about 1 ulp. To be exact, we will have

		-1ulp < sqrt(x)-z<1.0625ulp.

	   y := y*(1.5-0.5*x*y*y)	... almost 15 sig. bits to 1/sqrt(x)

	   y := y*((1.5-2^-30)+0.5*x*y*y)... about 29 sig. bits to 1/sqrt(x)

	... special arrangement for better accuracy

	   z := x*y			... 29 bits to sqrt(x), with z*y<1

	   z := z + 0.5*z*(1-z*y)	... about 1 ulp to sqrt(x)

	(a) the term z*y in the final iteration is always less than 1;

	(b) the error in the final result is biased upward so that

		-1 ulp < sqrt(x) - z < 1.0625 ulp

	    instead of |sqrt(x)-z|<1.03125ulp.

	correctly rounded according to the prevailing rounding mode

	as follows. Let r and i be copies of the rounding mode and

	inexact flag before entering the square root program. Also we

	use the expression y+-ulp for the next representable floating

	numbers (up and down) of y. Note that y+-ulp = either fixed

	point y+-1, or multiply y by nextafter(1,+-inf) in chopped

	mode.

	switch(r) {

	    case RN:		... round-to-nearest

	       if(x<= z*(z-ulp)...chopped) z = z - ulp; else

	       if(x<= z*(z+ulp)...chopped) z = z; else z = z+ulp;

	       break;

	    case RZ:case RM:	... round-to-zero or round-to--inf

	       R:=RP;		... reset rounding mod to round-to-+inf

	       if(x

	       if(x>=(z+ulp)*(z+ulp) ...rounded up) z = z+ulp;

	       break;

	    case RP:		... round-to-+inf

	       if(x>(z+ulp)*(z+ulp)...chopped) z = z+2*ulp; else

	       if(x>z*z ...chopped) z = z+ulp;

	       break;

	}

	example, to compare x and w=z*z chopped, it suffices to compare

	x1 and w1 (the trailing parts of x and w), regarding them as

	two's complement integers.

	To determine whether z is an exact square root of x, let z1 be the

	trailing part of z, and also let x0 and x1 be the leading and

	trailing parts of x.

	    I := 1;		... Raise Inexact flag: z is not exact

	else {

	    j := 1 - [(x0>>20)&1]	... j = logb(x) mod 2

	    k := z1 >> 26;		... get z's 25-th and 26-th

					    fraction bits

	    I := i or (k&j) or ((k&(j+j+1))!=(x1&3));

	}

	R:= r		... restore rounded mode

	return sqrt(x):=z.

	Inexact flag can be evaluated by

	    I := (z*z!=x) or I.

	True.

	zero.

		z1: |        f2        |

		    --------------------

		bit 31		   bit 0

	or even of logb(x) have the following relations:

	bit 27,26 of z1		bit 1,0 of x1	logb(x)

	-------------------------------------------------

	00			00		odd and even

	01			01		even

	10			10		odd

	10			00		even

	11			01		even

	-------------------------------------------------